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Vol. 12, Issue 4, 532-542, April 2002

The Genome of M. acetivorans Reveals Extensive Metabolic and Physiological Diversity

James E. Galagan,1 Chad Nusbaum,1 Alice Roy,1 Matthew G. Endrizzi,1 Pendexter Macdonald,1 Will FitzHugh,1 Sarah Calvo,1 Reinhard Engels,1 Serge Smirnov,1 Deven Atnoor,1 Adam Brown,1 Nicole Allen,1 Jerome Naylor,1 Nicole Stange-Thomann,1 Kurt DeArellano,1 Robin Johnson,1 Lauren Linton,1 Paul McEwan,1 Kevin McKernan,1 Jessica Talamas,1 Andrea Tirrell,1 Wenjuan Ye,1 Andrew Zimmer,1 Robert D. Barber,2 Isaac Cann,3 David E. Graham,4 David A. Grahame,5 Adam M. Guss,6 Reiner Hedderich,7 Cheryl Ingram-Smith,8 H. Craig Kuettner,6 Joseph A. Krzycki,9 John A. Leigh,10 Weixi Li,11 Jinfeng Liu,12 Biswarup Mukhopadhyay,6 John N. Reeve,8 Kerry Smith,8 Timothy A. Springer,13 Lowell A. Umayam,14 Owen White,14 Robert H. White,4 Everly Conway de Macario,15 James G. Ferry,16 Ken F. Jarrell,17 Hua Jing,13 Alberto J.L. Macario,15 Ian Paulsen,14 Matthew Pritchett,6 Kevin R. Sowers,18 Ronald V. Swanson,19 Steven H. Zinder,20 Eric Lander,1,21 William W. Metcalf,6 and Bruce Birren1,22

1 Whitehead Institute Center for Genome Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02141, USA; 2 University of Wisconsin-Parkside, Department of Biological Sciences, Kenosha, Wisconsin 53141, USA; 3 University of Illinois, Department of Animal Sciences, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA; 4 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Biochemistry, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-0308, USA; 5 Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland 20814-4799, USA; 6 University of Illinois, Department of Microbiology, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA; 7 Max-Planck-Institut für Terrestrische Mikrobiologie, Karl-von-Frisch-Straße, D-35043 Marburg, Germany; 8 Clemson University, Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, USA; 9 Ohio State University, Department of Microbiology, Columbus Ohio 43210, USA; 10 University of Washington, Department of Microbiology, Seattle, Washington 98195-7242, USA; 11 University of Kentucky, Molecular and Cellular Biology, T. H. Morgan School of Biological Sciences, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, USA; 12 Columbia University, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, New York, New York 10032, USA; 13 The Center for Blood Research and Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA; 14 The Institute for Genomic Research, Rockville, Maryland 20878, USA; 15 Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health and Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health, The University at Albany (SUNY), Albany, New York 12201-0509, USA; 16 Penn State University, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA; 17 Queen's University, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada; 18 University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute, Center of Marine Biotechnology, Columbus Center, Baltimore, Maryland 21202, USA; 19 Syrrx, Inc., San Diego, California 92121, USA; 20 Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA; 21 Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA

Methanogenesis, the biological production of methane, plays a pivotal role in the global carbon cycle and contributes significantly to global warming. The majority of methane in nature is derived from acetate. Here we report the complete genome sequence of an acetate-utilizing methanogen, Methanosarcina acetivorans C2A. Methanosarcineae are the most metabolically diverse methanogens, thrive in a broad range of environments, and are unique among the Archaea in forming complex multicellular structures. This diversity is reflected in the genome of M. acetivorans. At 5,751,492 base pairs it is by far the largest known archaeal genome. The 4524 open reading frames code for a strikingly wide and unanticipated variety of metabolic and cellular capabilities. The presence of novel methyltransferases indicates the likelihood of undiscovered natural energy sources for methanogenesis, whereas the presence of single-subunit carbon monoxide dehydrogenases raises the possibility of nonmethanogenic growth. Although motility has not been observed in any Methanosarcineae, a flagellin gene cluster and two complete chemotaxis gene clusters were identified. The availability of genetic methods, coupled with its physiological and metabolic diversity, makes M. acetivorans a powerful model organism for the study of archaeal biology.

[Sequence, data, annotations, and analyses are available at http://www-genome.wi.mit.edu/. The sequence data described in this paper have been submitted to the GenBank data library under accession no. AE010299.]

22 Corresponding author.

12:532-542 ©2002 by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press  ISSN 1088-9051/02 $5.00
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