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Vol. 9, Issue 7, 597-607, July 1999
REVIEW
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ABSTRACT |
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 Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
CONCLUSIONS
References
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The rapid accumulation of genetic information generated by the Human
Genome Project and related research has heightened public awareness of
genetics issues. Education in genome science is needed at all levels in
our society by specific audiences and the general public so that
individuals can make well-informed decisions related to public policy
and issues such as genetic testing. Many scientists have found that an
effective vehicle for reaching a broad sector of society is through
high school biology courses. From an educational perspective, genome
science offers many ways to meet emerging science learning goals, which
are influencing science teaching nationally. To effectively meet the
goals of the science and education communities, genome education needs
to include several major components
accurate and current information
about genomics, hands-on experience with DNA techniques, education in
ethical decision-making, and career counseling and preparation. To be
most successful, we have found that genome education programs require
the collaborative efforts of science teachers, genome researchers,
ethicists, genetic counselors, and business partners. This report is
intended as a guide for genome researchers with an interest in
participating in pre-college education, providing rationale for their
involvement and recommendations for ways they can contribute, and
highlighting a few exemplary programs. World Wide Web addresses for all
of the programs discussed in this report are given in Table 1. We are
developing a database of outreach programs offering genetics education
(http://genetics-education.mbt.washington.edu/database) and request
that readers submit an entry describing their programs. We invite
researchers to contact us for more information about activities in
their local area.
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INTRODUCTION |
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Top
Abstract
Introduction
CONCLUSIONS
References
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Genomics Education as a Way to Facilitate K-12 Science Education Reform
Although publicity about the Human Genome Project (HGP) and biotechnology has increased public awareness, it has also raised concerns about many aspects of genetic research. These include the prospect of cloning humans, the limitations of genetic testing, the ethical ramifications of studying complex human traits like intelligence and behavior, and the risks associated with recombinant organisms. Genome researchers can make a substantial contribution to public understanding of these issues by collaborating in the development of educational programs focused on genomics. (See Table 1 for World Wide Web addresses of the programs discussed in this report.)
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Over the past decade, increasing the science literacy of this
country's populace has been a major focus of scientists, educators, and policy makers. Under the direction of the National Research Council
(NRC) and the American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS), scientists and science educators have collaborated to develop
national science education learning goals for kindergarten through
grade 12 (K-12). These efforts have resulted in several formative
documents from the AAAS (1989
, 1993) and the NRC (1996a). These
recommendations emphasize conceptual understanding, learning through
inquiry, and learning how to apply science and technology to solve
problems at the local, national, and global levels. Many states and
local school districts are currently in the process of developing or
revising their own academic learning goals in science using these
national recommendations. As will be discussed later in this report,
genomics offers many avenues for meeting these emerging science
education standards while engaging students in the excitement of new
scientific discovery in this field.
A variety of public and private agencies fund education in genomics (listed in Table 2). The National Science Foundation (NSF) provides considerable funding for education in this area as part of its broader efforts to support science education reform throughout entire school systems. Through its Advanced Technology Education (ATE) program, the NSF supports high school/college/industry partnerships that focus on the preparation of technicians for research in biotechnology. Both the Department of Energy (DOE) and the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) commit 3%-5% of funding for the HGP to the exploration of the ethical, legal, and social implications (ELSI) of its research, and basic education in genomics is funded through these ELSI programs. Industry and private organizations like the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) are also major supporters.
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We believe that the most effective avenue for educating large segments
of the population in genetics, biotechnology, and genome science is
through high school biology courses, and the best way to reach the
students in these courses is through their teachers. National studies
indicate that >95% of all high school graduates take a course in
biology, whereas only 51% study chemistry, and 22% study physics
(statistics for 1994; Council of Chief State School Officers 1995). In
our experience, high school students have the maturity, interest, and
scientific background to understand the concepts of genomics and the
related ELSI topics, making this an appropriate time to explore these
issues. Biotechnology and genome science also offer students a wide
variety of career opportunities that will continue to expand in coming years.
Critical Components for Education in Genomics
The field of genomics offers exciting options for meeting science learning goals because of its relevance and inherent appeal to students, potential to do hands-on experiments in classrooms, and career opportunities. In this section, we discuss four major areas that need to be addressed to provide quality education in genomics.ACCURATE SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION
To evaluate issues in genomics, students need to comprehend the organization of biological information from DNA to genes, gene expression, and the assembly of complex biological systems. They should also understand that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to complex human traits like intelligence, behavior, and multifactorial diseases like cancer and heart disease (McInerney 1995). Courses and
programs should also convey the possibilities and limitations of
current technologies, their applications in other fields, as well as
resources for finding up-to-date, accurate information.
EXPERIENCE WITH EXPERIMENTAL PROCESSES
Many of the techniques that are fundamental to genome research and biotechnology, such as restriction analysis, the PCR, and DNA sequencing can be carried out in a high school classroom and have become integrated into a small number of classrooms nationwide. Conducting experiments in genetics and molecular biology solidifies students' understanding of these topics by integrating abstract concepts into a concrete experience. In some cases, as illustrated in Figure 1, students are able to carry out research projects in collaboration with scientists or their classroom teacher.
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APPLYING SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE IN MAKING DECISIONS ABOUT RELATED SOCIAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES
The ELSI topics that arise as the human genome is sequenced demand that we educate the public in ways to address them. Several teaching methods have been developed to help students apply their understanding of genetics and other knowledge to real world problems. These decision-making models provide a framework for tackling complex ELSI topics by asking students to identify the ethical issues, relevant facts, stakeholders and principles, discuss possible options, and then select and justify the best option (Mertens and Hendrix 1982;
Brinckerhoff and Zeidler 1992; Jennings et al. 1997). Using newly
acquired genetic knowledge in a real world context helps students
understand the genetic concepts and provides motivation for their
learning by answering the eternal question: Why do we have to learn
this? Students also benefit from practicing a decision-making process
that can be applied in many situations in their lives.
CAREER AWARENESS AND PREPARATION
Genomics provides a wide variety of career opportunities requiring advanced degrees in diverse areas like biological research, health care, computer science, and science writing. In addition, the biotechnology industry and related fields provide entry-level technical positions that do not require college degrees. Nationally, only ~25% of high school students go directly to college, so these entry-level positions are an important option to many students (Education Development Center, Inc. 1995). High school biology
teachers have a critical role in informing students about both entry
level and advanced careers, as well as providing the knowledge and
skills to compete successfully for these positions.
The Importance of Partnerships in Facilitating Education in Genomics
The most effective way for scientists to make a contribution to
education in genomics is in collaboration with high school science
teachers, either on an individual basis or through an established
outreach partnership. By getting involved in pre-college education,
scientists have the opportunity to share the excitement of their field
of research with teachers and students, collaborate in the development
of quality education programs, and learn from outstanding teachers.
This involvement benefits the science community directly by helping to
produce a more scientifically literate population, which, in turn,
affects how the public perceives and accepts scientific endeavors. When
participating in outreach activities, scientists need to recognize the
multifaceted needs and interests of high school teachers and their
students, which may be much more general than their own. Furthermore,
both teachers and scientists need to respect the knowledge and skills
of their counterparts and recognize that there is a great deal they can
learn from each other (DeRosa and Krauss 1997). The perspectives of
three individuals who have had key roles in the development of the High
School Human Genome Program at the University of Washington are
presented in Figure 2.
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Partnerships often start with individual scientists and teachers
working together to affect the learning of a small number of students,
and these partnerships are very beneficial for all participants.
Ultimately, outreach programs should strive to be sustainable by
developing broad-base partnerships that include teachers, school
district administrators, scientists, ethicists and members of the
business community. Each partner provides a crucial element to the
programscientists and ethicists ensure the authenticity of the
information presented; teachers ensure that the materials are taught in
a way that meets the needs of the target audience; school district
administrators contribute to program sustainability by integrating the
program into the science curriculum and providing funds to support it;
and business leaders provide human, financial, and material resources.
Program sustainability requires long-term commitment by the partner
institutions and the ongoing procurement of material resources and
financial support.
The following anecdote illustrates how small individual outreach
efforts can catalyze widespread change in science education. While one
of the authors of this review (M.M.) was a graduate student, her thesis
advisor, Bruce Alberts, led a group of ~10 high school students on a
short tour of the laboratory, pointing out features like automatic
pipettors, bunsen burners, the water still, and fermentors (much to the
amusement of lab members). From this event, and through conversations
with teachers and university colleagues that followed over the next 2 years, Alberts spearheaded the development of a partnership program
between the University of California San Francisco (UCSF) and the San
Francisco Unified School District (SFUSD). The initial approach of this
partnership was to link, one-on-one, scientists (e.g., graduate
students and postdoctoral fellows) with individual K-12 science
teachers throughout San Francisco. In 1987, the UCSF Science and Health
Education Partnership (SEP) program was formally established as a
collaboration between the school district and the university (Clark
1996). Subsequently, the UCSF SEP program participated in forming
SF-BASE (San Francisco Biotechnology Alliance for Science
Education), a partnership of the SFUSD and San Francisco
colleges and universities that promotes and supports biotechnology
education in middle and high schools throughout the district. Five
other biotechnology education partnerships similar to SF-BASE have been
established in the San Francisco Bay area, including the Gene
Connection partnership in San Mateo County (Black et al. 1993) and the
Santa Clara County Biotechnology Education Partnership, cofounded by
one of the authors (G.H.). The Genentech Foundation for Biomedical
Sciences has provided substantial start-up and ongoing funding for
these partnerships. To support their mutual needs, these six
partnerships have established a nonprofit organization called the Bay
Area Biotechnology Education Consortium (BABEC).
How Genome Researchers Can Contribute to Science Education
An efficient way to become involved in educational activities is to volunteer with an existing outreach program at a local university, research laboratory, company, museum, or professional society. To identify education programs in your area, please refer to one of the databases describing outreach programs listed in Table 3. Another option is to directly contact a science teacher at a local school who is interested in forming a partnership with a scientist. Box 1
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; see Table 2 for URL), Alberts (1993), or
the web site of the NRC program, RISE (Resources for
Involving Scientists in Education;
see Table 1 for URL). Potential funding sources are listed in Table 2.
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Institutions and Organizations that Participate in Education in Genomics
In this section we discuss the many kinds of organizations involved in genomics education. The examples we cite do not constitute a comprehensive list of programs or activities. We are currently in the process of developing a Genetics Education Database and request that interested parties submit a description of their genetics outreach program if it is not already listed (http://genetics-education.mbt.washington.edu/database). URLs for all of the outreach programs described in this paper are listed in Table 1.
Two- and 4-Year Colleges and Universities, Genome Centers, and Research Institutes
A growing number of university science departments and research institutes include outreach activities as an integral part of their departmental commitments. These programs benefit from the diverse human, material, and financial resources that a university provides and the potential for collaborations with other departments, including colleges of education. An increasing number of school-to-work programs focus on the preparation of technicians for the biotechnology industry. Characteristically, these programs are developed by partnerships consisting of community colleges, high schools, and industrial partners. A prime example is a California program coordinated by a partnership between Berkeley Biotechnology Education, Inc., a private nonprofit foundation (Berkeley, CA) and Laney Community College (Oakland, CA). These partners coordinate a program involving, at present, two large urban school districts and >35 industrial and manufacturing laboratories. This 3-year, laboratory-intensive program targets local, low-income minority students at two high schools in the Berkeley area. Course work spans grades 11 and 12 in the high schools and the first year at Laney Community College. The course curriculum, which emphasizes math and science related to biotechnology, is designed in close collaboration with the program's industrial partners, and students implement their learning during summer internships (high school students) and year-round co-op jobs (community college students) at the partner industrial sites. Thus far, 19 students have graduated from the program, and 100% of them have found employment at a local biotechnology company. Initially funded by the Bayer Company as part of its commitment to the Berkeley community, the program is currently supported by a variety of private foundations and an NSF-ATE grant to Laney Community College.National Laboratories
Each of the DOE-supported National Laboratories involved in the HGP, including Oak Ridge, Lawrence Livermore, Lawrence Berkeley, and Los Alamos, have outreach programs that support science education in their local communities. The NHGRI maintains an Outreach and Education Office that supports a number of activities for K-12 education. These activities include the development of a web site that provides a genetics glossary and media events of the day and a collaboration in the development of a curriculum supplement in genomics aimed at high school students.Nonprofit Organizations and Foundations
The following examples reflect the diversity of activities supported by nonprofit organizations and foundations in genome education.| 1. | The North Carolina Biotechnology Center (NCBC) was created by the North Carolina State assembly in 1981 to stimulate economic development in biotechnology. This organization supports biotechnology-related research, business development, and education. Their K-12 activities include summer workshops for teachers, loans of equipment and videotapes, and a minigrant program. The unique feature of this program is the ongoing state support, which ensures long-term sustainability. |
| 2. | The Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS), a K-12 educational
research and development organization founded in 1958, has had a
leading role in the development of instructional materials in genomics.
Well known for their high school biology textbook (BSCS 1996), BSCS
recently has focused on the development of teaching modules that
address the science, application, ethics, and informatics of the HGP
(Cutter et al. 1992, 1996, 1997).
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| 3. | The Genentech Foundation for Biomedical Sciences in Northern California funds local science education partnerships serving grade 6 through community college. Several other foundations support biotechnology education projects, including the Monsanto Fund, which has sponsored the development of several biotechnology curricula by the St. Louis Mathematics and Science Education Center (MO). |
Museums
A number of public museums have exhibits that are focused on DNA science and technology, such as the DNA Learning Center at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, the Bradbury Science Museum in Los Alamos, and the San Francisco Exploratorium. In 1995, the Exploratorium featured an exhibit that explored genetics and the HGP from a variety of perspectives (Carlson 1997). Many of the exhibits from this program
remain active at the Exploratorium, including an Ethical Scenarios
Forum, called ETHEX. This forum presents several scenarios based on
ethical, legal, and social issues of genetics and the HGP, and enables the
museum visitors and remote users to present their opinions on these topics.
Biotechnology Industry
The biotechnology industry is becoming increasingly more proactive in the education of the general public, in many cases providing funding, scientific support, equipment donations, and other forms of support for classrooms and the community. For example, a Seattle-based company, Immunex, has made a firm commitment to formal education by employing a full-time Science and Education Manager to coordinate a variety of company outreach activities. Other companies that have made a substantial contribution to biotechnology education include Amgen, Monsanto, Genentech, Inc., and the Applied Biosystems Division of Perkin-Elmer.Health Care Organizations
Some health care organizations offer professional development programs and written materials for classroom teaching. For example, many of the 10 regional networks for genetic services that serve the United States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands (affiliated through the Council of Regional Networks for Genetic Services, or CORN) include outreach to K-12 teachers among their organizational goals. One of these groups, the Pacific Northwest Regional Genetics Group, collaborates with the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation to present workshops on human genetics for educators as well as health professionals, using a curriculum they have developed called Designer Genes.Foundations and Support Groups for Genetic Conditions
Many of the support groups for specific genetic conditions have developed informational brochures or videos to educate physicians, members of affected families, and the general public. A comprehensive list is provided on the web site of the Human Genome Teacher Networking Project (URL in Table 1).National Scientific Societies
Many scientific societies, such as The American Society of Cell Biology and the American Society of Human Genetics (ASHG), include a symposium for high school students and teachers as a part of national meetings. At the 1996 annual meeting of the ASHG in San Francisco, its High School Outreach Program hosted >170 students and teachers from 30 high schools for a day of activities that included DNA forensics and conducting PCR genotyping. Following this model, the American Society for Gene Therapy included a symposium for 400 high school students as part of its first annual meeting in Seattle in May 1998.How Educational Programs Support Genomics Education
The successful integration of genomics into all high school biology classrooms requires the following key components: (1) professional development for teachers that provides up-to-date information about genome science, ELSI topics, and training in experimental procedures; (2) implementation and support of classroom experimentation; and (3) development of instructional materials for teaching genomics and related ELSI topics.
Comprehensive outreach programs provide all of these components, although they vary in approach and emphasis. In this section we highlight several unique programs that emphasize different aspects of these important components. As in the previous section, the programs discussed here represent a small subset of the many activities currently in place.
Professional Development for Teachers
All of the programs discussed below provide extensive professional development for teachers and offer different solutions for implementing DNA experimentation in the classroom.SCIENCE EDUCATION PARTNERSHIP
Typically, most high school science teachers have never participated in scientific research. To provide this opportunity, the Science Education Partnership at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (FHCRC) in Seattle offers a 21/2-week summer institute for middle and high school teachers from Washington. This program was designed by a collaboration of high school teachers and scientists, and lead teachers have a major role in the presentation of the summer workshop. Participants in the workshop are partnered with a scientist mentor at the FHCRC, the University of Washington, or a local biotechnology company and carry out a research project with the assistance of their mentor. They also learn a variety of techniques that they can perform with their students during the school year, using supply kits provided by the program.PARTNERS IN SCIENCE
For a more in-depth research experience, teachers sometimes develop long-term collaborations with research faculty at universities or biotechnology companies. The Partners in Science program, funded by the M.J. Murdock Charitable Trust, provides awards to colleges and universities to support collaborative summer research between high school science teachers and a faculty member in several states in the Pacific Northwest. With funding from the HHMI, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) will soon begin a program that enables secondary teachers from the District of Columbia and suburban Maryland and Virginia to spend the summer doing research in an NIH laboratory.HIGH SCHOOL HUMAN GENOME PROGRAM
Some outreach programs emphasize the ability of students to participate in authentic research as a way of engaging them in genome science. The High School Human Genome Program enables high school teachers and their students to sequence a segment of human DNA, in collaboration with scientists at the University of Washington (see Fig. 1B). This program presents a 1-week summer workshop focused on DNA sequencing and the scientific and ethical issues of the HGP. Throughout the school year, local teachers are provided with all of the equipment and reagents necessary to carry out the sequencing process in their classrooms, as well as a team of scientists to help during experiments and provide a link to the research community. Participants from other regions receive technical advice and DNA templates to help them establish sequencing programs in their communities.DNA LEARNING CENTER AND CITYLAB
A few biotechnology outreach programs are located in teaching laboratories that are used for both teachers and students. The DNA Learning Center is both a teaching laboratory and public museum located at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. The Learning Center staff provide professional development for biology teachers at the teaching laboratory and at other locations throughout the United States. During the school year, classrooms from surrounding school districts go to the Learning Center to participate in DNA experiments, including bacterial transformation, restriction enzyme analysis, and PCR. Similarly, CityLab at Boston University School of Medicine is a biotechnology learning center that serves middle and high school students and teachers in the Boston area. CityLab offers summer workshops for local teachers, who then lead their students through biotechnology experiments at the teaching laboratory with the assistance of CityLab staff. Other programs offered by CityLab include a mobile laboratory, a Biotechnology Club for grade 7-12 students, Science Fair Projects, and Biotechnology Camp.HUMAN GENOME TEACHER NETWORKING PROJECT
The Human Genome Teacher Networking Project, based at the Kansas University Medical Center, updates middle and high school teachers throughout the United States on applications of the HGP over a 2-year period that includes two 1-week summer workshops. Participants interact with genetic counselors, other genetics professionals, and families affected by genetic conditions and learn about genetic screening and testing, public policy issues, careers, genetic resources, classroom curriculum materials (including hands-on experiments), and Internet-based collaborations with genetics professionals. During the academic year, teachers network with peers and genetics professionals while disseminating genetics information to students, colleagues, and the public.BIOTECHNOLOGY ON A SHOESTRING
Biotechnology on a Shoestring is a NSF-funded program developed by the National Association of Biology Teachers and its industrial partner, Life Technologies, Inc. It provides a curriculum for carrying out experiments in biotechnology using relatively inexpensive materials and supplies, presenting three-day workshops at several locations throughout the year. Participating teachers implement the program units using materials and supplies from their classroom budget. To obtain administrative commitment for participating teachers, their school principals are required to provide $200 for the teacher's travel expenses. Participating teachers agree to present one workshop on the course materials within their community and are encouraged to develop partnerships with other teachers in their community and with a local industry.Implementation and Support of Classroom Experimentation
Many techniques in genetic research and biotechnology are suitable for classroom use and enable students to carry out scientific inquiry in this field. To successfully incorporate these techniques into the classroom, teachers need both professional development, as just discussed, and access to the necessary equipment and reagents. There are a variety of ways that teachers can obtain the scientific materials they need: (1) borrow the equipment and reagents from a scientist partner at a local research laboratory or biotechnology company; (2) obtain equipment and supplies from an outreach program that provides them as part of its program activities; (3) take their classroom on a field trip to a teaching laboratory designated for high school classrooms, such as the DNA Learning Center or CityLab; and (4) purchase their own equipment and reagents through their school budget or by applying for small grants. Typically, teachers employ several of these approaches to get the materials they need. When they first begin to incorporate biotechnology into their classrooms they usually borrow materials, but many teachers strive to obtain their own equipment as they integrate more experimentation into their teaching.Instructional Materials
A variety of different approaches and media are used to convey recent information about genomics.LABORATORY MANUALS/TEXTBOOKS
High school biology texts generally do not cover topics in biotechnology or genomics in much detail, so more specialized textbooks are being developed to meet this need. The first textbook for teaching introductory high school and college-level biotechnology (Micklos and Freyer 1990) is a manual providing a historical perspective of
molecular biology and discussing classical genetics, DNA structure, basic molecular biology, and laboratory techniques for the study of
DNA. It also presents specific protocols for several techniques used in
molecular biology. Another comprehensive guide to biotechnology, aimed
at the high school level, was written as a result of the outreach
activities of its authors through the NCBC (Kreuzer and Massey 1996).
This textbook presents background information on genetics, molecular
biology, and biotechnology, describes activities that model biological
processes and experimental procedures, provides protocols for hands-on
experiences, and discusses societal issues related to biotechnology.
CURRICULUM SUPPLEMENTS
As well as comprehensive textbooks, curricular units that focus on specific topics in genomics are also being developed. The BSCS has provided several teaching modules at the high school level to address the science, applications, ethics, and informatics of the HGP (Cutter et al. 1992, 1996, 1997). BSCS is currently developing a unit on
complex inheritance, in conjunction with the NHGRI and the Office of
Science Education at NIH. The Hastings Center, a nonprofit research and
educational institute focused on bioethics, has developed a resource
for teaching bioethics in high school classrooms (Jennings et al.
1997). This book presents several case studies in biomedical fields and
provides a decision-making framework to help students discuss the
related ethical issues. As part of its Science + Literacy for
Health project, the AAAS supported the book by Baker (1997; URL for
online version given in Table 1), which introduces genetic concepts in
the context of specific case studies. Its simple language, interesting
scenarios, and clear descriptions of genetics make it a useful resource
for middle and high school teaching.
INTERNET RESOURCES
As an increasing number of schools become connected to the Internet, this media is becoming steadily more useful for pre-college genetics education. The Internet offers the advantages of immediacy, the ability to carry out large-scale discussions, and opportunities for students and teachers to use the online research tools that are available to research scientists. Access Excellence (AE) is a national education program sponsored by Genentech, Inc., that uses the Internet to connect high school biology teachers with their colleagues, scientists, and current scientific information on a broad range of topics, including genomics. The site includes a Graphics Gallery with reproducible diagrams related to the science of DNA, a time line of the development of biotechnology, interviews with people who have careers in the biotechnology industry, an in-depth presentation of bioethics, and many teacher-written, classroom-tested, genomics-related activities. The Natural History of Genes is a web-based program sponsored by the University of Utah Medical School, the Eccles Institute of Human Genetics, and the Utah Museum of Natural History. This program provides a wide array of information and activities for teaching genetics, as well as links to related sites and notices of workshops for high school teachers. The web site of the DNA Learning Center at Cold Spring Harbor has two innovative tutorials that enable students to access databases of either student alleles for an Alu insert or DNA sequences from the mitochondria of different individuals. Students can carry out several analyses using these data. Other useful features on this site include the Animation Library, which has demonstrations of PCR and cycle sequencing, and a news section that highlights current events pertaining to DNA technology.LECTURE SERIES
Another way to present up-to-date content and the excitement of scientific research is through a community-directed lecture series. One example is the Distinguished Speaker Series, which is cosponsored by the TIGR Science Education Foundation, the NRC, and the DOE. For the last 3 years, the HHMI has sponsored an annual event called the Holiday Lectures on Science, which is telecast live by satellite throughout the United States and Canada. This lecture series is aimed at the high school level and features discussions of a particular topic in biology each year by two outstanding scientists. This program also provides a guide for teachers, videotapes of the lectures, and a web site that provides additional resources. The value of this program for high school students is in witnessing the level of enthusiasm and commitment of distinguished scientists, gaining perspective about the significance of a body of scientific work, and the validation of the subject matter that the students are learning in the classroom.LABORATORY TOURS
Tours of research facilities provide students with a sense of the "feel" of a laboratory, give them a chance to talk to the diverse collection of individuals who work in research laboratories, and often include opportunities to participate in hands-on experiments. Many research institutes and biotechnology companies, such as the Seattle-based Immunex, provide tours to students, teachers, and other community members on a routine basis.CD-ROMS, AUDIO AND VIDEO TAPES, AND LASER DISCS
A variety of products developed commercially or as part of outreach activities are used in classrooms to enhance teaching or provide independent learning. Teachers frequently use excerpts from quality science programs produced by the Public Broadcasting Station. A recent example is the DOE-funded documentary, "A Question of Genes," which explores the profound challenges confronted by families at risk for genetic disorders as they consider genetic testing. This series is available on video, and a teacher's guide has been developed. The newly released radio series, "The DNA Files," which focuses on the social implications of human genome research, is also available on tape.| |
CONCLUSIONS |
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Top
Abstract
Introduction
CONCLUSIONS
References
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Genomics education provides many avenues for involving students in the excitement of scientific exploration and exposing them to the potential benefits to society that science can provide. The development of effective genome education activities requires the collaboration of scientists, ethicists, and other genetics professionals, science teachers, school administrators, and the business sector. Whereas the programs and materials referenced here are excellent examples of what can emerge with a collaborative effort, there is still much to do to reach our national goal to make science available for all Americans.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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We thank Cindy Desmarais and Eric Moon for construction of the database; Cindy Desmarais for preparation of the figures; and Ethan Allen, Leroy Hood, and Nancy Hutchison for critical reading of the manuscript. In particular, we thank Bruce Alberts, Leroy Hood, Maynard Olson, and Richard Myers for their long-standing commitment to education outreach.
Funding for the High School Human Genome Program and M.M. is provided by the DOE (grant DE-FG03-98ER62547/AM01); funding for the development of the DNA Snapshots curriculum and L.C. was provided by the NHGRI (grant NIHHG00206); and G.H. was supported as Teacher-in-Residence by the DOE (grant DE-FG03-96ER62161/AOO2), which we gratefully acknowledge.
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FOOTNOTES |
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6 Corresponding author.
E-MAIL mmunn{at}u.washington.edu; FAX (206) 685-7344.
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REFERENCES |
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Abstract
Introduction
CONCLUSIONS
References
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Received June 4, 1998; accepted in revised form May 7, 1999.
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